on Roberge, Biosafety 2013, 2:2 Biosafety http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2167-0331.1000111 Research Article Open Access Analysis of Introduced Species as a form of Biological Weapon: part 2- Strategies for Discernment of an Attack and Countermeasures Roberge Lawrence F* Laboure College, 303 Adams Street, Milton, MA 02186-4253 USA Abstract One key issue with biological weapons (BW) using Non-Indigenous Species (NIS) (aka invasive species) is to differentiate a deliberate attack from a natural outbreak or accidental introduction via commerce or other means. The methods to detect a Non-Indigenous Species based Biological Warfare (NIS BW) attack as well as discern accidental introductions from a deliberate attack are diverse and challenging. They include a multi-tiered analysis to rule out the following: possible routes of accidental releases from commercial trade; escapes from exotic breeders; releases of exotic pets; and release or dispersal of NIS from catastrophic storms, prevailing wind currents or animal migrations. Other keys to determine a deliberate NIS BW attack are detection of uncommon routes of entry; widespread dissemination of the NIS; extremely high rates of propagules found; or evidence of genetic alternation of NIS, especially to enhance invasiveness, reproduction, or colonization traits as well as human intelligence of a planned BW attack using the introduced organism; and evidence of culturing of the NIS organism by a nation state or terrorist facility.
A. NIR: The Silent Weapon of Biological Warfare
B.
This paper explores the use of Non-Ionizing Radiation (NIR) as a biological weapon (NIS BW). It examines the potential for NIR to be used in biological warfare and the legal framework surrounding its use. The paper also briefly explores other international treaties that would prohibit the use of NIS BW.
Keywords: Agrobioterrorism; Berne protocols; Biodefense; Biological weapon; Biosecurity; Bioterrorism; Black biology; Bwtc; Counterstrategies; Detection; Environmental modification treaty; Environmental niche modeling; Exotic species; Garp; Introduced species; Invasive species Methods to Discern or Detect a Deliberate Attack- Introduction An attack using biological weapons (BW) has been defined as “the intentional use by the enemy, of live agent or toxins to cause death and disease among citizens, animals, and plants” [1,45]. Introduced species are non-native species introduced into a foreign ecosystem that successfully flourish and may damage the abiotic or biotic factors of that ecosystem [27,33]. As discussed in the previous paper [1], the potential use of non-indigenous species (NIS) as a biological weapon has the potential to affect a nation’s public health, ecosystems, agricultural commodities, and biofuel feed stocks and could be delivered by a hostile nation, criminal or terrorist groups or by a lone individual.
As previous research [1] supports the hypothesis that NonIndigenous Species (NIS) can be used as a Biological Weapon (BW), the question arises as to how a deliberate release could be distinguished from an accidental release of NIS into a niche. Although much more research would be needed, at the present time, the following sections of this chapter provide some suggested approaches and protocols to differentiate accidental from deliberate releases of NIS. Although the following approaches are suggested strategies, they are based on previous known methods of NIS introduction and/or previous cases of BW attacks [1-3]. Detection via NIS Dispersal Modes
The introduction of non-indigenous species (NIS) into new environments is a significant threat to biodiversity and ecosystem stability. Accidental introductions are a major concern, but deliberate introductions are also a growing threat. To distinguish between accidental and deliberate introductions, researchers are exploring various dispersal modes.
The summary provided discusses the concept of introduced species as biological weapons. It highlights the potential dangers of such weapons and the importance of recognizing their presence. The summary emphasizes the need for effective strategies for discerning an attack and developing countermeasures. It also discusses the role of biological weapons in warfare and the potential for misuse.
The presence of the invasive species, *Neoscona insularis*, in the United States is a complex issue with no single explanation. While commercial and large-scale deliveries are often cited as a potential source, this explanation is not entirely conclusive. If commercial and large-scale deliveries cannot explain the introduction of *N.
This review process involves examining the NIS entry and considering the potential pathways of introduction. This process is crucial for understanding the invasion process and developing effective management strategies. The review process begins with a thorough examination of the NIS entry, including its ecological characteristics, distribution, and abundance.
The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) is a treaty that prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, and use of biological and toxin weapons. The treaty was signed in 1972 and entered into force in 1975. The Convention has been ratified by 187 countries.
* **Rapid spread:** The rapid spread of a BW pathogen is a significant concern. This is because it can quickly overwhelm healthcare systems and lead to widespread panic and social disruption. * **High transmissibility:** The high transmissibility of a BW pathogen is another major concern.
Let’s break down these points and explore their implications. **1. Causative Agent’s Resilience:**
The causative agent of the disease exhibits remarkable resilience, capable of enduring harsh environmental conditions and displaying unusual resistance.
The summary provided focuses on the introduction of invasive species (NIS) and their potential for causing significant ecological and economic damage. It highlights the challenges associated with controlling and managing these species, particularly the use of non-traditional pathways for their introduction. Let’s delve deeper into the specific challenges posed by NIS and the strategies employed to mitigate them.
Remote areas are characterized by their geographical isolation, limited access to resources, and often harsh environmental conditions. These factors contribute to their slow development and make them less attractive to large-scale investments. However, remote areas also offer unique advantages, including the potential for sustainable development and the opportunity to address global challenges.
## The Importance of Timing in Invasive Species Release
The timing of invasive species releases is crucial for maximizing their colonization potential. This principle is based on the understanding that invasive species often exhibit a “window of opportunity” during which they can successfully establish themselves in a new environment. This window of opportunity is influenced by various factors, including temporal and spatial constraints.
This study aimed to assess the distribution and abundance of NIS plants in relation to environmental factors. **Key Findings:**
* **High NIS Plant Abundance:** The study found that NIS plants were significantly more abundant in areas with higher levels of human disturbance. This finding suggests that NIS plants are particularly well-adapted to thrive in disturbed environments.
IAEA), and international organizations (e.g. UN). The domestic component would involve the FBI, NSA, and other relevant agencies.
This is a significant concern because genetically engineered organisms could be used for bioterrorism. The potential for misuse of genetically engineered organisms is a serious threat to global security. The development of bioweapons is a complex and multifaceted issue, with a range of potential applications and risks.
This scenario highlights the potential for NIS BW to be introduced through a variety of means, including smuggling, trade, and even accidental introductions. The potential for NIS BW to be introduced through smuggling is particularly concerning. Smuggling is a common practice for various goods, including food and pets.
However, it is a crucial step in understanding the nature of the incident. This statement highlights the complexity of determining the intent behind a NIS entry, particularly when smuggling pathways are ruled out. The statement emphasizes the need for a thorough investigation to understand the true nature of the incident. Let’s break down the statement further:
NO Uncertain-More info required #3-NIS arrived by unauthorized release of hazardous materials?
BTWC and Other Treaties It is worthy to note that NIS BW-if discovered to be a deliberate attack- would be in violation of various international treaties. Clearly the use of NIS BW would be a violation of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) [28]. As stated in Article I: “Each State Party to this Convention undertakes never in any circumstances to develop, produce, stockpile or otherwise acquire or retain: (1) Microbial or other biological agents, or toxins whatever their origin or method of production, of types and in quantities that have no justification for prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes;
(2) Weapons, equipment or means of delivery designed to use such agents or toxins for hostile purposes or in armed conflict [28]. The application of NIS in a BW approach would be considered as a “biological agent” that would be used in a “non-peaceful purpose”. The delivery vehicles (e.g. biocruise, aerial sprayer, etc.) used to transport and disperse the NIS BW would also be in violation of the BTWC as they would be designed for delivery of such “biological agents” for “hostile purposes”. It must be also noted that the Sixth Conference of the BTWC reaffirmed: “…that the Convention is comprehensive in its scope and that all naturally or artificially created or altered microbial and other biological agents and toxins, as well as their components, regardless of their origin and method of production and whether they affect humans, animals or plants, of types and in quantities that have no justification for prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes, are unequivocally covered by Article I.” [28].
Hence, this reaffirmation states that genetically altered organisms for BW -even NIS BW- would be in violation of the BTWC [28]. Beyond the BTWC, the application of NIS BW would also be in violation of other prior international treaties. For example, the Environmental Modification Treaty of 1977 (Article I & II) is clear in the prohibition of “…military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting or severe effects as the means of destruction, damage or injury to any other State Party” [29]. The convention clarifies the term “Environmental Modification Techniques” to include: “…any technique for changing — through the deliberate manipulation of natural processes” as well as stating that this treaty covers the Earth‘s “biota, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere, or of outer space” [29].
The summary provided focuses on the implications of the use of Non-Indigenous Species (NIS) Biological Weapons (BW) under the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC). It highlights the potential for NIS BW to disrupt ecosystems and harm autochthonous biotic and abiotic components. **Detailed Text:**
The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), a landmark international treaty, prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, and use of biological weapons.
The Treaty also aims to prevent the use of any weapon that could cause widespread or indiscriminate harm, including chemical weapons, biological weapons, and nuclear weapons. This is a significant step towards achieving global peace and security. The Treaty further emphasizes the importance of international cooperation in the development and control of weapons of mass destruction.
A. The Multifaceted Nature of Bioterrorism
B.
Bioterrorism is a threat that requires a multi-faceted approach to address. It is a complex and evolving threat that demands a comprehensive understanding of its various aspects. Bioterrorism can be categorized into different types, including biological weapons (BW), which are agents that can cause disease or death.
The summary provided focuses on the role of APHIS in pest containment and control. Let’s delve deeper into this aspect. **APHIS: A Key Player in Pest Management**
The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is a critical component of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
A report from the NRC in 2002 made a series of recommendations to enhance the scientific basis for predicting invasive potential of plants and plant pests [27]. Some of these recommendations have merit to counter NIS BW attacks and have been included in this chapter where they offer value. The NRC report [27] recommends that APHIS improve its Port Information Network (PIN)-a database which logs all APHIS interceptions of restricted organisms found at US entry pointsby improving sampling protocols, methodology, as well as make the data available for scientific investigators. Furthermore, the NRC report urges improvements in APHIS’s risk assessment of organisms upon arrival; improve the documentation process; that the risk assessment process becomes peer-reviewed; and update the process to capture new information and provide for improvements in expert judgment [27]. Finally, the NRC report recommends the USDA upgrade its imported plant evaluation procedures, including a multi-tiered evaluation of hazards that the potential NIS species might offer. This analysis would include use of controlled experimental field screening and life history and population data where establishment and rapid spread data of the species is lacking [27]. This author recommends a genomic mapping (similar to a genetic finger print of the species) be conducted –if it was not already performed-prior to deliberate release (See below Section 11- NIS GENOMIC RESEARCH).
a) Invasive Species: A Growing Threat to Ecosystems
b) Managing Invasive Species:
The summary provided focuses on the importance of understanding and managing invasive species (NIS) and their impact on ecosystems. It highlights the need for a comprehensive approach to NIS management, encompassing prevention, early detection, rapid response, and control. The summary emphasizes the role of public awareness and education in successful NIS management.
This approach can help researchers understand the potential distribution of NIS organisms in different regions and predict their future spread. **Ecological Niche Modeling (ENM):**
* **Definition:** ENM is a statistical method that uses environmental data to predict the potential distribution of species. * **How it works:** ENM combines environmental variables (e.g., temperature, precipitation, soil type) with species occurrence data to create a predictive model.
**The Future of ENM Software: Continuous Improvement and Innovation**
This statement highlights the need for continuous improvement and innovation in ENM software. It emphasizes that the current software, while useful, has limitations and can be further enhanced to improve its accuracy, efficiency, and effectiveness. Let’s break down the key points:
This research recommendation focuses on using a standardized approach to identify and monitor invasive species (NIS) in native plant populations. The research recommends a multi-faceted approach that includes:
1. **Developing a standardized protocol for pathogen and pest detection:** This protocol should be developed in collaboration with experts in plant pathology and entomology. The protocol should be based on a combination of molecular techniques, such as PCR, and traditional methods, such as microscopy. 2.
The summary provided focuses on the importance of expanding databases on invasive species. It highlights the existing databases, NISIC and GISD, and suggests that further research using GARP and other ENM tools can enhance their usefulness. **Detailed Text:**
The fight against invasive species is a global effort, requiring comprehensive data to effectively manage and control these threats.
The report also suggests that the National Invasive Species Information Center (NISIC) should be the central hub for all NIS information. The NRC report highlights the importance of public awareness and education in combating invasive species. It emphasizes the importance of early detection and rapid response to minimize the spread of invasive species. The report recommends that the NISIC should be the central hub for all NIS information.
NIS Genomic Research As stated in the previous section, the number of genomic maps of NIS organisms is small. Nevertheless, as rapid advances in genome sequencing technology continue and funding becomes available, the capability for full genome mapping of NIS organisms will occur. Expansion of genomic analysis of NIS organisms serves several purposes. First, by providing a genome map, the NIS can be reviewed for vulnerabilities or genetic characteristics that may help in the detection, eradication or control (i.e. containment) efforts in invaded niches. Scorza [35] discusses how the genetic structure of the NIS population can affect the initial establishment and growth of the NIS population in the naïve niche. Scorza states that the greater the genetic variability of the founder stock (i.e. the NIS propagules invading the naïve niche); the less important are the similarities in ecosystems between the native niche and the naïve niche [35]. This principle allows for genetic diversity to enhance NIS survival by the natural selection from the ecosystem differences of the naïve site.
The NIS (Network Information System) is a critical infrastructure component that provides network services to organizations and individuals. It is a vital part of the modern digital landscape, enabling communication, data sharing, and other essential functions. The NIS is vulnerable to cyberattacks, and its security is paramount. The NIS is susceptible to various types of attacks, including malware, phishing, and denial-of-service attacks.
Finally, as the genomes of pathogenic bacteria and potential BW agents have been completed sequenced [36-39], the data has been used for the various applications, including: the understanding of the physiology of the pathogen; the interaction of the host-pathogen relationship; and the development of diagnostics, drug therapies, and vaccines to the pathogen. One important development from genomic mapping is the development of genetic fingerprinting of BW agents for epidemiological and forensic investigation [40]. Linder, Huang and team [40] describe how various genetic fingerprinting techniques have been devised to indentify various strains of biological warfare agents. This information is critical not merely for diagnostic purposes, but for the forensic identification of the nation or source of the BW agent used in a BW attack. If the development of NIS genome maps occurred, the same forensic applications could be applied for the determination of a deliberate NIS BW attack.
Schaad et al. [41] and Schaad and al. [42] describe real-time PCR techniques for rapid detection and identification of foodborne pathogens.
The second, and very critical, role for genomic analysis of NIS organisms is in the determination of whether the NIS was genetically altered. Lindler et al. [42] notes that the genotyping of pathogens would aid infectious disease specialists and Human Intelligence agencies (HUMINT) in the identification of BW agents as well as genetically engineered BW agents [42]. If an NIS invasion was found with the NIS genetically engineered, especially for enhanced invasion traits or novel weapons, then this evidence would be highly indicative that the NIS introduction was not accidental, but a deliberate NIS BW attack. Black [43] discusses how genome projects can be used to create the next generation of biological weapons. Although Black focuses his paper on use of gene vectors for weapons development, his arguments are applicable to the issue of genetically engineered NIS BW. Black states that the prevention of the misuse of genome projects for military purposes will be next to impossible [43]. The author bases his argument on the following reasons: the long history of humanity using any technology possible for weapons development; that the progress of biotechnology will lead to more highly effective gene vectors and gene cloning for enhanced genetic engineering; and that the results of publicly funded genomic research is freely available via the Internet around the world. Black warns that genomic weapons and the technology to develop such weapons must be carefully monitored for any developments of military importance. The same monitoring must occur for NIS genetic research and any NIS weaponization research.
The use of genetically engineered NIS (Neisseria meningitidis) for biological warfare (BW) purposes is a serious concern. NIS is a bacterium that causes meningitis, a serious and potentially fatal disease. NIS genome mapping could potentially speed up the development of genetically altered NIS for BW purposes.
Conclusions As the previous paper [1] built up data and strategies to support the hypothesis that NIS could be used as a biological weapon, the challenge in this paper was focused on how to discern that an actual NIS invasion is a BW event. The first approach examines the modes of dispersal of NIS as a possible explanation to an accidental or unintended NIS invasion. The commercial cargo transports, packing materials and even the cargo itself would have to be reviewed as a possible carrier of NIS. Beyond that approach, the next level of review would examine if the NIS gained entry to the niche by unauthorized releases of pets or an escape from exotic pet breeders. If that reasoning mode yielded no results, the next area of investigation would analyze if the NIS was spread or was introduced into a naïve niche via catastrophic storms (e.g. hurricanes), prevailing winds, or even “hitching a ride” on migrating organisms like birds or insects.
As this approach progresses, it must be noted that several researchers using established BW protocol for analysis of unusual outbreaks provide for an array of indicators that may warn of a deliberate BW attack or deliberate BW development. Many of these protocol points are equally applicable to NIS BW analysis. Of course, the proper investigation and prevention of a NIS BW attack will involve human intelligence (HUMINT) organizations-both domestic and international. The organizations would need to be vigilant not merely to actual outbreaks (i.e. NIS invasions), but to the attempts to develop NIS BW systems or smuggling operations to import NIS agents for BW development and subsequent use.
The potential for the development of a new generation of cyber weapons, known as Network Intrusion Systems (NIS), is a serious concern. These weapons could be used to disrupt critical infrastructure, steal sensitive data, and even cause physical harm. NIS are designed to exploit vulnerabilities in computer systems and networks, often targeting specific individuals or organizations.
The summary provided focuses on the introduction of invasive species (NIS) and their impact on ecosystems. It highlights the importance of understanding the dispersal mechanisms of NIS to effectively manage their spread. The summary emphasizes the need for a comprehensive analysis of NIS dispersal modes, including both natural and anthropogenic (human-induced) pathways. This analysis should be conducted to distinguish between accidental and deliberate introductions.
The summary provided focuses on the importance of counterstrategies to prevent and mitigate the impact of Network Intrusion Signature (NIS) based attacks. It highlights the need for further research and development of techniques to combat these attacks. The summary emphasizes the significance of enhanced border and port of entry prevention, as well as improvements in the PIN database for effective NIS prevention.
This will allow for the more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the NIS, leading to the development of more effective treatments and therapies. The summary provided focuses on the future potential of genomic mapping in understanding and treating Non-Invasive Species (NIS). Let’s delve deeper into this potential.
Roberge LF (2013) Analysis of Introduced Species as a Form of Biological Weapon: Part 2-Case Studies. Biosafety 2: 128. Please note that the provided summary only mentions two publications by Roberge LF.
**A. The Crucial Role of Agriculture in Global Food Security**
**B.
In: Food Security: A Global Perspective. Edited by: FAO. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. This paper explores the complex relationship between agriculture and food security, highlighting the crucial role of agricultural practices in ensuring food availability, access, utilization, and stability. It examines the impact of various factors on agricultural productivity, including climate change, land degradation, and water scarcity.
The Impact of Shipboard Activities on the Distribution of Marine Organisms. Marine Ecology Progress Series 260: 1-16. This study investigated the impact of shipboard activities on the distribution of marine organisms.
This study examined the spread of citrus canker, a bacterial disease affecting citrus trees, in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. 15. The researchers analyzed the data from the affected area, focusing on how the disease spread and progressed.
17. Gottwald TR, Irey M (2007) Post-hurricane analysis of citrus canker II: Predictive model estimation of disease spread and area potentially impacted by various eradication protocols following catastrophic weather events. Plant Health Progress. 18. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (2008) Wheat Killer Detected In Iran: Dangerous Fungus on the Move from East Africa To The Middle East. Science Daily. 19. Main CE, Keever T, Holmes GJ, Davis JM (2001) Forecasting Long-Range Transport of Downy Mildew Spores and Plant Disease Epidemics. APSnet Features. 20. Main CE, Davis JM (1989) Epidemiology and biometeorology of tobacco blue mold. In: Blue Mold of Tobacco. W. E. McKean, ed. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN, 201-215.
21. Simberloff D, Betsy VH (1999) Positive Interactions of Nonindigenous Species: Invasional Meltdown? Biological Invasions 1: 21-32. 22. Asner GP, Hughes RF, Vitousek PM, Knapp DE, Kennedy-Bowdoin T, et al. (2008) Invasive plants transform the three-dimensional structure of rain forests. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105: 4519-4523. 23. Ainscough MJ (2002) Next Generation Bioweapons: Genetic Engineering and Biological Warfare. The Gathering Biological Warfare Storm 165-186. 24. Callaway R, Ridenour WM (2004) Novel weapons: Invasive Success and the Evolution of Increased Competitive Ability. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2: 436-443. 25. Callaway RM, Cipollini D, Barto K, Thelen GC, Hallett SG, et al. (2008) Novel weapons: invasive plant suppresses fungal mutualists in America but not in its native Europe. Ecology 89: 1043-1055.
This summary discusses the potential for biological weapons to be used in economic warfare. The author, Robert Kadlec, argues that biological weapons could be used to disrupt economic activity and create chaos in a targeted region. He provides examples of how this could be achieved, such as using a virus to cripple a nation’s agricultural sector or targeting a critical infrastructure component like a power grid.
30. (2005) “Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I)”. International Committee of the Red Cross. 31. Lebeda FJ (1997) Deterrence of biological and chemical warfare: a review of policy options. Mil Med 162: 156-161. 32. McKenzie JR, Kenneth F (2000) “The Revenge of the Melians: Asymmetric Threats and the Next QDR: McNair Paper 6” Air War College, Maxwell air force base, Montgomery, Alabama . 33. (2011) “National Invasive Species Information Center (NISIC)”. National Agricultural Library. 34. (2011) “Global Invasive Species Database (GISD)”. Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). IUCN Species Survival Commission.
“The Ecology of Invasive Species.” In Invasive Species: A Guide to Their Biology, Ecology, and Control. New York, Springer. Please note that the summary you provided is incomplete. I need the full summary to generate a detailed and comprehensive text.
The summary provided focuses on the use of genetic fingerprinting in biodefense and forensic investigations. It highlights the importance of genetic fingerprinting in identifying and tracking pathogens, particularly in the context of bioterrorism. The summary also discusses the applications of genetic fingerprinting in forensic investigations, such as identifying victims and perpetrators.
44. Allen JE, Gardner SN, Slezak TR (2008) DNA signatures for detecting genetic engineering in bacteria. Genome Biol 9: R56. 45. Couch D, Captain USNR (2003) The U.S. Armed Forces Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Survival Manual. New York, NY: Basic Books. Categories: . Biological Warfare